In 1842, British and East India Company soldiers left Kabul during the First Anglo-Afghan War. This happened after an uprising in Kabul forced Major-General William Elphinstone, the commander at the time, to retreat to the British garrison in Jalalabad. In early January 1842, as the army and its many dependents, including families, workers, and servants, began their journey, they were attacked by Afghan tribesmen. Many soldiers and civilians died from cold, starvation, or injuries during the fighting.

At the start of the war, British and East India Company forces had defeated Afghan Emir Dost Mohammad Barakzai and occupied Kabul in 1839, restoring Shah Shujah Durrani as ruler. However, the situation worsened, and an uprising in Kabul forced Major-General Elphinstone to withdraw. To ensure safety during the retreat, Elphinstone made an agreement with Wazir Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohammad Barakzai, guaranteeing protection for the retreating forces as they traveled more than 140 kilometers (90 miles) to Jalalabad.

As soon as the British left Kabul, Afghans loyal to Akbar began attacking the group. The journey was slow and difficult, with the column moving through snowy winter conditions along the road now known as the Kabul–Jalalabad Road. In total, the British army lost 4,500 soldiers and about 12,000 civilians, including families of soldiers, workers, and servants. The final battle took place near a village called Gandamak on January 13.

Out of more than 16,000 people in Elphinstone’s group, only one European (Assistant Surgeon William Brydon) and a few Indian soldiers reached Jalalabad. Over 100 British prisoners and civilians were later released. Many Indian soldiers survived but suffered from frostbite and later lived as beggars or were sold into slavery elsewhere. About 2,000 Indian soldiers returned to India after a later British invasion of Kabul, while others remained in Afghanistan.

In 2013, a writer for The Economist referred to the retreat as "the worst British military disaster until the fall of Singapore a century later."

Background

In 1838, the East India Company worried that Russia was becoming more powerful in Afghanistan after Dost Mohammad Barakzai took control from the previous ruler, Shuja Shah Durrani, in 1834. Dost Mohammad had refused earlier requests from Russia, but when Lord Auckland, the Governor-General of India, tried to control Afghan foreign policy under British leadership, Dost Mohammad renewed his connection with Russia. Lord Auckland followed the advice of his assistant, William Hay Macnaghten, to support Shuja Shah, ignoring the suggestions of Alexander Burnes that Dost Mohammad should be helped. He decided to use military force and began gathering troops in late 1838.

The army, led by General Sir Willoughby Cotton with Macnaghten as his main advisor, included 20,000 soldiers and 38,000 civilian helpers, such as craftsmen, cooks, servants, and families of soldiers. In March 1839, they crossed the Bolan Pass and traveled toward Kabul. They moved through difficult areas, including deserts and high mountain passes at 4,000 meters (13,000 feet), but made steady progress and captured Kandahar on April 25.

They also took the previously unbreakable fortress of Ghazni on July 22 in a surprise attack. The British lost 200 soldiers, while the Afghans lost nearly 500 soldiers and 1,600 prisoners, with many more injured. An Afghan soldier betrayed his leader, and the British blew open a city gate, entering Ghazni in a happy mood. Supplies from Ghazni helped the army continue its journey, which would have been harder without them.

Dost Mohammad ran away and hid in the Hindu Kush mountains. Kabul fell to the British without a fight on August 6, 1839. Shuja Shah returned and was declared ruler by the British. He set up a court in the fortress of Bala Hissar above Kabul.

More than a year later, on November 4, 1840, Dost Mohammad gave up to Macnaghten and was sent into exile in India.

Occupation

In August 1839, the British, influenced by Shah Shuja, decided not to stay in the citadel of Kabul. Instead, they set up their military camps 2.5 kilometers (1.5 miles) outside the city. This choice, made for diplomatic reasons, turned out to be a major mistake in military strategy, leaving the British forces in a weak and vulnerable position.

As the British political representative to Shah Shuja, Macnaghten became a prominent figure in Kabul’s society. At the time, the city was described as clean and pleasant, with many large wooden homes surrounded by well-maintained gardens. British soldiers and officials enjoyed activities such as cricket matches, horse races, and hunting. In the evenings, officers and their wives from the East India Company performed plays, including Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream.

Attending evening events hosted by Florentia Sale, the wife of Brigadier-General Robert Sale, was considered a special honor. These gatherings often included meals with salmon, stew, and drinks like madeira, port, and champagne. British confidence grew, leading to the return of many troops to India.

While the British lived comfortably, some Afghans were upset about being ruled by a foreign power. Rumors of relationships between British soldiers and Afghan women caused tension. Britain had replaced Dost Mohammad, a more popular leader, with Shah Shuja, a weak ruler seen as harsher to his enemies. In 1840, Wazir Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mohammad, began uniting tribes in rural areas where British influence was weak. He started a guerrilla war, forcing British troops to constantly move.

The British government in India further weakened efforts to control Afghanistan by stopping regular payments to local tribes near Kabul and the Khyber Pass, which had been used to maintain peace. Without these payments, tribes no longer supported the British-backed government. Macnaghten ignored warnings about growing Afghan anger, telling his superiors in India that such unrest was normal for Afghan society. By 1841, British movement around Kabul became increasingly limited.

Despite these challenges, Sir Willoughby Cotton was replaced as commander of British forces by Sir William Elphinstone, who was ill and reluctant to take the position. Elphinstone, who had joined the British army in 1804, was honored for leading troops at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. By 1837, he had risen to the rank of major general. However, his colleague General William Nott called him "the most incompetent soldier among officers of his rank."

In the autumn of 1841, Brigadier-General Sale and his troops were ordered to return to Jalalabad, a key location on the military route between Kabul and Peshawar. He left his wife, Lady Sale, behind in the British camps in Kabul.

Afghan uprising

On November 2, 1841, Akbar Khan announced a widespread uprising, and the people of Kabul quickly joined him. They attacked the home of Sir Alexander Burnes, a senior British political officer, and killed him and his staff. Elphinstone and Macnaghten were surprised by these events. At this time, the East India Company had only 4,500 soldiers in and around Kabul, with 690 of them being Europeans. Elphinstone did not punish those who killed Burnes, which made the revolt continue. On November 9, Afghan forces captured the main British supply storage in Kabul and took its contents.

On November 23, the Afghans took control of a hill that overlooked the British camp and began attacking the camp with two cannons. A British force tried to drive them away, but the Afghans forced them to retreat using long-range gunfire from the high ground. The East India Company soldiers fled, leaving 300 dead and wounded behind (who were quickly killed). British morale began to decline as the situation became more difficult. Elphinstone sent messengers to ask for help from Major General Nott in Kandahar, but the messengers turned back because heavy snow blocked the mountain passes.

Macnaghten, realizing their difficult position, tried to negotiate an agreement with Akbar Khan to allow the troops and the 12,000 British and Indian civilians in Kabul to leave safely. On December 23, Afghan leaders invited Macnaghten and his fellow diplomats to a meeting outside the camp. A cavalry escort was assigned to protect them, but Macnaghten decided to go without them when the escort was delayed. As soon as his group dismounted from their horses, they were captured, and Macnaghten and an aide were killed by armed men. Their bodies were badly injured and dragged through the streets of Kabul.

Two other British officers who had been with Macnaghten were later released. Elphinstone again did not act against the Afghans, and his officers began to lose confidence in his leadership.

Major Eldred Pottinger took over as envoy to the Afghan court. On January 1, 1842, Elphinstone agreed to Akbar Khan’s terms, which included some difficult conditions. For example, all gunpowder supplies, the newest muskets, and most of the cannons had to be handed over. In return, Akbar Khan promised a safe path for all foreign troops and civilians, including children, women, and the elderly, to leave Kabul. The withdrawal, which was to begin on January 6, involved crossing the snow-covered mountains of the Hindu Kush to reach Jalalabad, 140 kilometers (90 miles) away.

Elphinstone's army

Elphinstone led a group that included one British infantry battalion (the 44th Regiment of Foot), three regiments of regular Indian infantry from Bengal (the 5th, 37th, and 54th Bengal Native Infantry), one regiment of Shah Shujah's Levy (a group of Indian soldiers paid by the British for service in Afghanistan), Anderson's Irregular Horse, the 5th Bengal Light Cavalry, and six guns from the Bengal Horse Artillery (along with engineers).

In total, there were 700 British soldiers and 3,800 Indian soldiers. People who traveled with the army, including families, servants, and workers, numbered about 14,000.

Retreat and massacre

At the first light on January 6, Elphinstone’s group began to leave Kabul, leaving Shuja Shah Durrani and his followers behind. Akbar Khan had promised safety to all, including the sick, wounded, and weak, so they were also left behind. However, once the last group left the military camps, Afghans quickly entered and started shooting at the retreating troops from walls while setting fire to buildings, killing those who remained.

When Elphinstone left the city, he found out that Akbar Khan had not sent the promised protection, nor had he provided food or fuel to help cross the Hindu Kush mountains in winter. Major Eldred Pottinger begged the sick British commander to return to Kabul, as they still had time to seek safety in the fortress of Bala Hissar. But Elphinstone refused to turn back and insisted on heading to Jalalabad. The group of 16,000 soldiers and civilians was now at the mercy of Afghan tribes.

By the second day, shooting from nearby hills slowed the group’s movement. Although the troops were well armed, their progress was blocked by frightened civilians and camp followers. Small fights happened often. The Afghans captured some of the group’s artillery and forced the British to destroy two of their three remaining cannons. In just 24 hours, the group had only one small gun and two heavier cannons left.

Later that afternoon, Akbar Khan met Elphinstone, pretending he did not know about any betrayal. He claimed he could not provide the promised protection because the group had left their camps earlier than expected. Akbar Khan asked Elphinstone to wait while he negotiated safe passage with Afghan leaders who controlled the Khord-Kabul pass, 25 kilometers from Kabul. Despite what had already happened, Elphinstone agreed and waited. He also handed over three more European hostages to Akbar Khan.

Instead of moving forward, Elphinstone had only traveled ten kilometers from Kabul. By now, efforts to keep the group organized were failing. When the group entered the narrow six-kilometer pass the next day, they were attacked from all sides by Ghilzais using captured British muskets and traditional jezails. It became clear that Akbar Khan had not negotiated safe passage; it was a trick to let Afghans position themselves for an ambush.

Throughout the third day, the group struggled through the pass. Once the main group passed, Afghans attacked the stragglers and wounded. By evening on January 9, the group had only moved 40 kilometers, but 3,000 people had died. Many were killed in fighting, froze to death, or committed suicide. Elphinstone’s report noted that many soldiers had lost fingers or toes from the cold, and their muskets were covered in snow and unusable.

By the fourth day, a few hundred native soldiers left the group and tried to return to Kabul, but they were all killed or enslaved. Elphinstone, who no longer gave orders, sat silently on his horse. On the evening of January 9, Lady Sale and the wives and children of British and Indian officers accepted Akbar Khan’s promise of protection. Despite distrust, they were taken into custody. Once hostages, all Indian servants and sepoy wives were murdered.

By the evening of January 11, the army had only 200 men left. The small rearguard was led by Brigadier-General John Shelton, who showed skill for the first time during the retreat by fighting fiercely against the Afghans. When the surviving troops were trapped in a ruined mud-walled enclosure in Jagadalak, Akbar Khan’s envoys returned and persuaded Elphinstone and Shelton to join them for negotiations.

Akbar Khan brought the two officers to his camp and gave them dinner. However, he refused to let them return to their men. Shelton became angry and demanded the right to return and fight.

On January 12, the group, now without a commander and having lost over 12,000 people, decided to wait until night and move forward in the dark. The remaining troops, led by Brigadier-General Thomas John Anquetil, found their path blocked by a tall thorny barrier of prickly holly oak. Most who tried to climb it were shot before reaching the other side. Discipline among the trapped men ended, and Afghans attacked them. A few who climbed the barrier fled toward Jalalabad but were killed in a fight.

The largest surviving group, 20 officers and 45 European soldiers from the 44th Regiment of Foot, tried to move forward but were surrounded on a snowy hill near Gandamak. With only 20 working muskets and two shots per weapon, the troops refused to surrender. A British sergeant reportedly said, “not bloody likely!” when Afghans tried to convince them to surrender.

Sniping began, followed by attacks. Soon, the hill was overrun. An officer named Captain Souter was mistaken for a high-ranking officer because he wore a general’s yellow waistcoat. In reality, he had wrapped the 44th Regiment’s colors around his body. He and a sergeant named Fair, along with seven privates, were captured. The rest were killed.

Another group of fifteen officers reached the village of Fattehabad but ten were killed while eating breakfast, four were shot as they remounted their horses, and one was beheaded.

On January 13, a British officer from the original group arrived in Jalalabad on a wounded horse. A few sepoys who hid in the mountains followed later. Assistant Surgeon William Brydon, who rode a pony taken from a mortally wounded officer, continued despite being wounded in fights with Afghan bands.

On January 13, near Jalalabad, Brydon fought for his life against Afghan horsemen. After escaping one pursuer, he was spotted by a staff officer in Jalalabad, who sent riders to meet him. When asked what happened to the army, Brydon replied, “I am the army.”

Although part of his skull was cut by a sword, Brydon survived because he had insulated his hat with a magazine, which blocked the blow. Brydon later wrote about the journey. The pony he rode lay down in a stable and never got up. For several nights, lights were shown on Jalalabad’s gates, and bugles were sounded to guide survivors to safety.

Aftermath

The destruction caused great shock in Britain and India. Lord Auckland, the Governor General, seemed to have a sudden illness after learning the news. In the fall of 1842, an "Army of Retribution," led by Sir George Pollock and commanded by William Nott and Robert Sale, destroyed the large marketplace and buildings in Kabul. Sale saved his wife, Lady Sale, and other hostages from Wazir Akbar Khan. However, the defeat of British forces by Afghan tribesmen embarrassed British officials in India.

Out of the British prisoners, 32 officers, more than 50 soldiers, 21 children, and 12 women survived and were released in September 1842. Many Indian soldiers, called sepoys, and other prisoners were sold into slavery in Kabul or held in mountain villages. One sepoy, Havildar Sita Ram, escaped after 21 months of slavery and returned to his regiment in Delhi. About 2,000 sepoys and camp followers were found in Kabul and brought back to India by General Pollock’s army.

The leadership of Elphinstone is often criticized as an example of how poor decisions by a high-ranking officer can harm an army’s strength and confidence. Elphinstone failed to lead his soldiers effectively and prevented his officers from taking charge.

Historians still debate whether Akbar Khan ordered the massacre, allowed it to happen, or was unable to stop it. Some British officers and families claimed Akbar Khan told tribesmen to "Spare them!" in Persian and "Kill them!" in Pashto. Regardless, the British response to the event was clear to Akbar Khan. He became the ruler of Afghanistan in May 1842 and remained in power until Dost Mohammad Khan returned in 1843. Akbar Khan died of cholera in 1847.

Dost Mohammad remained a British prisoner until late 1841, when he was released after the British took revenge on Kabul. The British decided not to interfere in Afghanistan’s affairs again. After Shuja Shah was killed in April 1842, Dost Mohammad quickly regained control. He died of natural causes on June 9, 1863, one of the few Afghan rulers in the past thousand years to do so. Even after two British invasions, he did not act during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

The loss of many Indian troops during the retreat hurt the morale of the East India Company’s Bengal Army, as these soldiers came from that group. The East India Company’s reputation for being unbeatable was damaged. A British officer later said, “Men remembered Kabul,” when describing the start of the Bengal mutiny fifteen years later.

Depictions

In 1858, German writer Theodor Fontane composed the ballad Das Trauerspiel von Afghanistan (The Tragedy of Afghanistan).

British author George MacDonald Fraser discusses this event in the first book of his Flashman Papers series, titled Flashman.

The 1973 Australian play Kabul was inspired by this historical event.

The 2017 television series Victoria includes an episode titled "A Soldier's Daughter," which shows how Brydon survived the retreat. In the episode, Queen Victoria reacts to the many deaths during the retreat by giving a speech at the launch of HMS Trafalgar and by meeting Brydon privately and giving him recognition.