Sir Marc Isambard Brunel (born April 25, 1769; died December 12, 1849) was a French-British engineer best known for his work in Britain. He built the Thames Tunnel, the first underwater tunnel in the world, and was the father of Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
Brunel was born in France. During the French Revolution, he left France and went to the United States. In 1796, he became the chief engineer of New York City. In 1799, he moved to London, where he married Sophia Kingdom. In addition to building the Thames Tunnel, he designed machines that helped the Royal Navy make pulley blocks more quickly.
Although Brunel preferred to be called Isambard, he is usually known as Marc in history to avoid confusion with his famous son. In 1841, Queen Victoria gave him a special title, called a knighthood, to honor his success in finishing the Thames Tunnel.
Early life in France
Marc Brunel was the second child of Jean Charles Brunel and Marie-Victoire Lefebvre. His father was a successful farmer in Hacqueville, Normandy, and Marc was born on the family farm. In wealthy families, it was common for the oldest son to inherit the family land, while the second son often joined the priesthood. His father began Marc’s education in classical subjects, but Marc did not enjoy studying Greek or Latin. Instead, he showed talent in drawing, mathematics, and music.
At eleven years old, Marc was sent to a school in Rouen. The school’s leader allowed him to learn carpentry, and Marc quickly became skilled at making furniture. He also drew pictures of ships in the harbor. Because Marc did not want to become a priest, his father sent him to live with relatives in Rouen. There, a family friend taught him about naval work. In 1786, after learning about ships, Marc became a naval cadet on a French frigate. During his time in the navy, he traveled to the West Indies multiple times. He built his own octant, a tool used for navigation, using brass and ivory, and used it during his service.
In 1789, while Marc was serving abroad, the French Revolution began. In January 1792, Marc’s ship released its crew, and he returned to live with relatives in Rouen. Marc supported the royal family, as did many people in Normandy. In January 1793, while visiting Paris during the trial of Louis XVI, Marc publicly predicted the downfall of Robespierre, a leader of the Revolution. He was fortunate to escape Paris alive and returned to Rouen. However, it was clear that he needed to leave France. During his time in Rouen, Marc met Sophia Kingdom, an English woman who had no family and worked as a governess. When Marc fled to Le Havre, he had to leave Sophia behind and boarded the American ship Liberty, which was heading to New York.
United States
Brunel arrived in New York on September 6, 1793. He later traveled to Philadelphia and Albany. He worked on a plan to connect the Hudson River to Lake Champlain using a canal. He also submitted a design for the new Capitol building in Washington. The judges admired the design, but it was not chosen.
In 1796, after becoming a citizen, Brunel was chosen as the chief engineer of New York City. He designed homes, docks, commercial buildings, an arsenal, and a cannon factory. No official records remain of his work in New York, and it is likely that the documents were destroyed during the New York draft riots of 1863. In 1798, during a dinner conversation, Brunel learned about the Royal Navy’s challenge of producing 100,000 pulley blocks each year by hand. He quickly created a basic design for machines that could automate their production. He decided to travel to England to present his invention to the Admiralty. He sailed to England on February 7, 1799, with a letter of introduction to the Navy Minister. His ship, the Halifax, arrived at Falmouth on March 7.
Britain
While Brunel was in the United States, Sophia Kingdom stayed in Rouen, France. During the Reign of Terror, she was arrested as an English spy and feared she would be executed daily. She was saved when Robespierre fell from power in June 1794. In April 1795, Sophia left France and traveled to London.
When Brunel returned to Britain, he went to London and met Sophia. They married on November 1, 1799, at St. Andrew’s Church in Holborn. In 1801, their first child, a daughter named Sophia, was born. In 1804, their second daughter, Emma, was born. In 1806, their son, Isambard Kingdom, was born. Isambard later became a famous engineer and grew up in Lindsey House in Chelsea, London.
In the summer of 1799, Brunel met Henry Maudslay, an engineer who had previously worked for Joseph Bramah and had started his own business. Maudslay created working models of machines used to make pulley blocks. Brunel then spoke with Samuel Bentham, the Inspector General of Naval Works. In April 1802, Bentham suggested using Brunel’s block-making machines at Portsmouth Block Mills. Brunel’s machine could be operated by unskilled workers and produced ten times more blocks than before. Forty-five machines were installed at Portsmouth, and by 1808, the factory made 130,000 blocks each year. The Admiralty delayed payment, even though Brunel had spent over £2,000 of his own money on the project. In August 1808, they agreed to pay £1,000 first. Two years later, they paid just over £17,000.
Brunel was a skilled mechanical engineer who helped improve sawmill machinery. He worked on contracts for the British Government at Chatham and Woolwich dockyards, using his experience from Portsmouth Block Mills. He built a sawmill in Battersea, London, which produced veneers. The sawmill burned down in 1814 but was rebuilt by 1816. He also designed sawmills for other people. Brunel created machines to mass-produce soldiers’ boots, but production stopped when the Napoleonic Wars ended. In 1814, Brunel was made a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1828, he became a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1834, he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1845, he was named an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Debtors' prison
Although Brunel had great success in creating a new method for making building blocks using machines and was honored by the Royal Society in 1814, he faced financial problems due to unpaid bills from the Admiralty and other failed business projects. By early 1821, he owed so much money that he was imprisoned in a debtors' prison in Southwark. This type of prison allowed prisoners to live with their families, and Brunel's wife, Sophia, stayed with him during his 88-day stay. While in prison, Brunel wrote to Alexander I of Russia about moving to St. Petersburg to work for the Tsar. When British leaders learned that Brunel might leave the country, important people like the Duke of Wellington asked the government to help. The government gave Brunel £5,000 to pay his debts, but only if he agreed not to go to Russia. Because of this, Brunel was released from prison in August 1821.
Thames Tunnel
In 1805, the Thames Archway Company was created to build a tunnel under the Thames River between Rotherhithe and Limehouse. Richard Trevithick was hired to construct the tunnel. He used miners from Cornwall to work on the project. In 1807, the tunnel faced problems with quicksand, making conditions dangerous. The tunnel was abandoned after more than 1,000 feet had been built. Experts, including William Jessop, believed such a tunnel was not possible.
Brunel had already designed plans for a tunnel under the River Neva in Russia, but this plan was never completed. In 1818, Brunel patented a tunnelling shield. This shield was made of strong cast iron and had separate sections where miners could work. The shield was pushed forward using large jacks, and bricks were used to line the tunnel behind it. It is said that Brunel got the idea for the shield from the shipworm, Teredo navalis, which has a hard shell to protect itself while boring through wood.
Brunel’s invention became the basis for later tunnelling shields used in the London Underground and other tunnels. Brunel believed he could use the shield to build a tunnel under the Thames. He wrote to influential people to gain support. In February 1824, a meeting was held, and 2,128 shares were sold at £50 each. In June 1824, the Thames Tunnel Company was officially formed with royal approval. The tunnel was meant for horse-drawn traffic.
Work began in February 1825 by digging a vertical shaft 50 feet wide on the Rotherhithe side. A metal ring was built, and a circular brick tower was constructed around it. As the tower grew taller, its weight pushed the ring into the ground. Workers dug the center of the ring. The shaft was completed in November 1825, and the tunnelling shield, made by Henry Maudslay’s company, was assembled at the bottom. Maudslay also provided steam-powered pumps for the project.
The shield had a rectangular shape and was made of twelve separate frames. Each frame had three compartments for miners to work in. Altogether, the shield could hold 36 miners. When enough material was removed, the shield was moved forward using jacks. Bricklayers then lined the tunnel walls. The tunnel required over 7.5 million bricks.
Brunel was helped by his son, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who was 18 years old. Brunel planned the tunnel to be no more than 14 feet below the riverbed at its lowest point. This caused later problems. Another issue was William Smith, the company chairman, who believed the shield was unnecessary and wanted Brunel replaced. Despite this, the shield proved useful. Both Brunel and his assistant engineer became ill, and Isambard had to manage the work alone for a time.
Flooding occurred at the tunnel face because it was close to the riverbed. In May 1827, workers had to plug a large hole in the riverbed. The company ran out of money, and the tunnel was sealed in August 1828. Brunel resigned, frustrated by the chairman’s opposition. He worked on other projects, including helping his son design the Clifton Suspension Bridge.
In March 1832, William Smith was removed as chairman. In 1834, the government loaned £246,000 to the company. The old 80-ton shield was replaced with a new 140-ton shield made of 9,000 parts. Tunnelling continued, but flooding still occurred. Miners suffered from polluted water, and many became ill. A second vertical shaft was built near Wapping, starting in 1840 and taking 13 months to complete.
On 24 March 1841, Brunel was knighted by Queen Victoria, at the suggestion of Prince Albert. The tunnel opened on the Wapping side on 1 August 1842. Brunel suffered a stroke in November 1842, which temporarily paralyzed his right side. The tunnel officially opened on 25 March 1843. Despite his illness, Brunel attended the ceremony. Within 15 weeks, one million people visited the tunnel. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited on 26 July 1843. The tunnel remained for pedestrians only, not for horses.
In 1865, the East London Railway Company bought the tunnel for £200,000. Four years later, the first trains passed through it. The tunnel became part of the London Underground system and is still used today as part of the East London Line of the London Overground.
The engine house in Rotherhithe was taken over by a charitable trust in 1975 and turned into the Brunel Museum in 2006.
Subsequent life
After finishing the Thames Tunnel, Brunel's most important project, he was not in good health. He did not take on any major projects again, though he helped his son, Isambard, with some tasks. Brunel was proud of his son's work and was there for the launch of the SS Great Britain in Bristol on July 19, 1843. In 1845, Brunel had another, more serious stroke and was almost completely unable to move on his right side. On December 12, 1849, Brunel died at the age of 80, and his body was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery in London. His wife, Sophia, was later buried in the same place, followed by their son, Isambard, ten years later.