Saint Olaf (c. 995–29 July 1030), also known as Olaf the Holy, Olaf II, Olaf Haraldsson, and Olaf the Stout or "Large," was the king of Norway from 1015 to 1028. He was the son of Harald Grenske, a smaller king in Vestfold, Norway. After he died in the Battle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030, he was given the title Rex Perpetuus Norvegiae (Eternal/Perpetual King of Norway) and was declared a saint by Bishop Grimketel at Nidaros (Trondheim) one year later. His remains were placed in Nidaros Cathedral, which was built over his burial site. His sainthood helped spread Christianity among the Vikings and Norse people in Scandinavia.
In 1164, Pope Alexander III officially recognized Olaf’s canonization, making him a saint in the Catholic Church. He became widely known as Rex Perpetuus Norvegiae – "eternal king of Norway." After the Reformation, some members of the Lutheran and Anglican Churches honored him as a historical figure.
The story of Olav Haraldsson and the legend of Olaf the Saint became important to Norway’s national identity. During the time of romantic nationalism, Olaf was seen as a symbol of Norwegian independence and pride. Saint Olaf is represented by the axe in Norway’s coat of arms, and Olsok (29 July) is still celebrated as his day. Many Christian groups with Scandinavian connections, as well as Norway’s Order of St. Olav, are named in his honor.
Name
Olaf's Old Norse name is Óláfr Haraldsson. The name means "forefather" and "heir" combined. In modern Norway, the name is often written as Olav, though it was previously spelled Olaf. In Iceland, the name is Óláfr Haraldsson Ólafur. In Faroese, it is Ólavur. In Denmark, it is Olav. In Sweden, it is Olof. In Finland, it is Olavi. In England, the traditional spelling was "Olave," a form still seen in the names of some medieval churches dedicated to him. Other names used for him include Óláfr hinn helgi, Olavus rex, and Olaf. These names are used interchangeably, as described in the Heimskringla, a historical text by Snorri Sturluson. He is sometimes called "Rex Perpetuus Norvegiae," which means "Norway's Eternal King" in English. This title dates back to the 13th century.
During his lifetime, he was known as Olaf "the stout" or simply as Olaf "the big," which in Old Norse was Ólafr digri. In modern Norway, he is often called Olav den hellige (in Bokmål) or Heilag-Olav (in Nynorsk), which means "Olaf the Holy" in English. These names honor his recognition as a saint.
Background
Olaf Haraldsson is recorded as being born in Ringerike. However, Ringerike should not be confused with the modern area named after the legendary Ringerike of Ivar Vidfamne and Sigurd Hring. This area may be considered a group of five small kingdoms that worked together with five kings who chose Olaf Haraldsson as their High King at Hringsakri, as described in Saint Olafs Saga. These kings included King Hrœrekr, King Guðrøðr, King Hring, and two others whose identities are less clear. Olaf Haraldsson did not become King of Norway until the Battle of Nesjar.
Olaf Haraldsson was the son of Åsta Gudbrandsdatter and Harald Grenske, a petty king in Vestfold. Later Icelandic stories say Harald Grenske was the son of Gudrød Bjørnsson, who was the son of King Bjørn Farmann in Vestfold. King Bjørn Farmann was the son of King Harald I Fairhair Halvdansson, who united Norway into one kingdom and created a system where the kingship had less dependence on local rulers. Therefore, according to the sagas, Olaf was a great-great-grandson through the male family line of the founder of the Norwegian kingdom. Harald Grenske died when Åsta Gudbrandsdatter was pregnant with Olaf. Åsta later married Sigurd Syr, with whom she had other children, including Harald Hardrada, who later became king of Norway.
The petty kings of Ringerike seemed to have claims to the position of High King in the Uppsala Commonwealth, which could have posed a threat to the royal family of Munsö during King Olof Skötkonung’s reign. The Earls of Hlaðir and the petty kings of Hringerike had been in conflict since at least when King Harald Fairhair took control of all of Norway.
Saga sources for Olaf Haraldsson
Many texts provide information about Olaf Haraldsson. The oldest is the Glælognskviða, or "Sea-Calm Poem," written by Þórarinn loftunga, an Icelander. It praises Olaf and mentions some of the famous miracles linked to him. The Norwegian synoptic histories also mention Olaf. These include the Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum (around 1190), the Historia Norwegiae (around 1160–1175), and a Latin text, Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium by Theodoric the Monk (around 1177–1188).
Icelanders also wrote extensively about Olaf, and there are several Icelandic sagas about him, including Fagrskinna (around 1220) and Morkinskinna (around 1225–1235). Heimskringla (around 1225), by Snorri Sturluson, largely bases its account of Olaf on the earlier Fagrskinna. The sources indicate that he was raised in the Norse pagan religion but converted to Christianity early in his adulthood. The Oldest Saga of St. Olaf (around 1200) is important to scholars for its frequent use of skaldic verses, many of which are attributed to Olaf himself.
Finally, many biographical sources describe St. Olaf, but these focus mostly on miracles attributed to him and cannot be used to accurately recreate his life. A notable one is The Passion and the Miracles of the Blessed Olafr.
Reign
A well-known story about Olaf's life comes from a book called Heimskringla, written around 1225. Although some details in the story are questionable, it describes Olaf's actions as follows:
In 1008, Olaf arrived on the Estonian island of Saaremaa (Osilia). The Osilians were surprised and at first agreed to Olaf's demands, but later gathered an army during the talks and attacked the Norwegians. Olaf won the battle despite this.
It is said that Olaf fought alongside a Viking named Thorkell the Tall during the siege of Canterbury in 1011.
Olaf sailed to the southern coast of Finland sometime in 1008. This journey led to the Battle of Herdaler, where Olaf and his men were ambushed by the Finns in the woods. Olaf lost many men but managed to return to his boats. He ordered his ships to leave even though a storm was rising. The Finns chased them and moved forward on land as quickly as Olaf's men moved on water. Despite these challenges, they survived. The exact location of the battle is not known, and the Finnish name for Herdaler is unclear, but it may have been near present-day Ingå in Uusimaa.
As a teenager, Olaf traveled to the Baltic Sea, then to Denmark, and later to England. Some Viking poems suggest he led a successful attack on London Bridge, though records from England do not confirm this. This may have happened in 1014, helping to restore London and the English throne to Æthelred the Unready and removing Cnut. According to Heimskringla, the attack occurred shortly after the death of Sweyn Forkbeard, when the city was under Danish control. The account says Olaf helped Æthelred drive the Danes out of England. Olaf is also said to have aided Æthelred's sons after his death. However, he could not help them remove Cnut from power. After this, Olaf focused on Norway.
Olaf believed it was his duty to unite Norway into one kingdom, as Harald Fairhair had nearly achieved. On his way home, he spent the winter with Duke Richard II of Normandy. Vikings had conquered Normandy in 881. Richard was a strong supporter of Christianity, and the Normans had already converted to Christianity. Before leaving, Olaf was baptized in Rouen at the Notre-Dame Cathedral by Richard's brother, Robert the Dane, who was the archbishop of Normandy.
Olaf returned to Norway in 1015 and declared himself king, gaining the support of the five small kings of the Norwegian Uplands. In 1016, he defeated Earl Sweyn at the Battle of Nesjar, one of the powerful earls of Lade who had previously ruled Norway. He founded the town of Borg, later known as Sarpsborg, near the Sarpsfossen waterfall in Østfold county. Within a few years, he gained more power than any of his predecessors had.
Olaf defeated the small kings of the south, controlled the nobility, claimed authority over the Orkney Islands, and led a successful attack on Denmark. He made peace with King Olof Skötkonung of Sweden through Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker and was briefly engaged to Olof's daughter, Ingegerd, without Olof's permission. In 1019, Olaf married Astrid Olofsdotter, the illegitimate daughter of King Olof and the half-sister of his former fiancée. They had a daughter named Wulfhild, who married Ordulf, Duke of Saxony, in 1042.
In 1026, Olaf fought in the Battle of the Helgeå. In 1029, Norwegian nobles, angry with Olaf, supported King Cnut the Great of Denmark's invasion. Olaf was forced into exile in Kievan Rus. He later stayed in the Swedish province of Nerike, where local legends say he baptized many people. In 1029, King Cnut's Norwegian regent, Jarl Håkon Eiriksson, died at sea, and Olaf used this chance to reclaim the kingdom. With help from the Swedish king Anund Jacob, Olaf tried to avoid the strong Danish fleet by traveling through the Jämtland mountains to reach Nidaros, the Norwegian capital at the time. However, Olaf was killed in the Battle of Stiklestad on July 29, 1030, where some of his own people from central and northern Norway fought against him. The exact location of Saint Olaf's grave in Nidaros has been unknown since 1568, due to the destruction of religious images during the Lutheran reforms of 1536–37.
After Stiklestad, King Cnut ruled Norway for five years, with his son Svein and Svein's mother Ælfgifu (called Álfífa in Old Norse) acting as regents. However, their rule was unpopular. When Olaf's illegitimate son Magnus ('the Good') claimed the Norwegian throne, Svein and Ælfgifu had to flee.
Christianising
Olaf was once thought to have led the effort to make Christianity the main religion in Norway. However, most historians now believe he had little involvement in this process. Olaf brought a man named Grimketel with him, who helped set up church centers and organize the Norwegian church. However, Grimketel was only part of Olaf's household, and no permanent church positions were created until around the year 1100. It is also likely that Olaf and Grimketel did not introduce new church rules to Norway. These rules were later credited to Olaf, but this may not be accurate. Olaf may have tried to spread Christianity in parts of Norway where it was not widely practiced.
Some historians question how strongly Olaf followed Christianity. They note that he was often violent and that earlier scholars did not focus on this aspect of his life. It seems Olaf used his Christian beliefs to increase his power and control in Norway, like many other Scandinavian kings. Poems written about Olaf do not mention Christianity. Instead, they use references to pagan beliefs to describe love stories.
In his book The Conversion of Scandinavia, Anders Winroth explains that Scandinavians gradually adopted Christian practices over time, one by one. He does not claim Olaf was not Christian, but he argues that people in the region did not fully convert as described in later religious stories or historical accounts. Later writings portray Olaf as a holy figure who performed miracles to support the idea that Norway quickly converted to Christianity. However, historical evidence, especially the poems about Olaf, suggests the real Olaf did not act in this way.
Sainthood
Olaf quickly became Norway's patron saint. Bishop Grimketel declared him a saint just one year after Olaf died. The worship of Olaf helped unite Norway and strengthened the spread of Christianity in the country. He is also recognized as the patron saint of the Faroe Islands.
Because Olaf became Norway's patron saint and because he played an important role in later stories and Norwegian traditions, it is hard to know what kind of person he really was. From what is known, he seems to have been a ruler who did not have much power. His strength came from an alliance with the much stronger King Cnut the Great. Olaf was forced into exile when he tried to take power for himself. His attempt to reclaim his kingdom was quickly stopped.
This raises the question of why Olaf became so important after his death. Three reasons are key: the stories that grew around his role in spreading Christianity in Norway, the family connections between ruling families, and the need for a strong reason to support a leader in later times.
Olaf Haraldsson and Olaf Tryggvason (Olaf Haraldsson's godfather) are both seen as important in helping Norway convert to Christianity. However, large stone crosses and other Christian symbols show that parts of Norway were already influenced by Christianity long before Olaf's time. Most rulers in Norway since Håkon the Good (about 920–961) were Christians, including Olaf's main enemy, King Cnut the Great. It is clear that Olaf worked to create a larger church system than before. He brought bishops from England, Normandy, and Germany to Norway and tried to spread Christianity in inland areas, which were less connected to Europe and more focused on farming. These areas had stronger traditions tied to old beliefs about fertility.
Many believe Olaf introduced Christian laws in Norway in 1024, based on the Kuli stone. However, this stone is hard to understand. It is said that Olaf made Christianity the official religion of Norway, and his rules for the church were highly respected by the people and clergy. Pope Gregory VII required priests in Western Europe to remain unmarried in 1074–75. However, Olaf's church laws did not mention this rule. Only after Norway became an independent region with its own archbishop in 1153—making the Norwegian church more independent from the king and more connected to the Pope—did church laws become more important in Norway.
For several reasons, most importantly the death of King Cnut the Great in 1035, and possibly because some Norwegian nobles were unhappy with Danish rule after Olaf's death in 1030, Olaf's illegitimate son with his concubine, Alvhild, Magnus the Good, took control of Norway and later Denmark. Many Danish churches were named after Olaf during Magnus's time, and stories suggest that Magnus tried to promote the worship of his father. This was common in Scandinavian kingdoms. Before Christianity, Scandinavian kings claimed their right to rule by saying they were descendants of the Norse god Odin or, in the case of Swedish kings, the god Freyr. After becoming Christian, kings claimed their right to rule by being descendants of a saintly king. This is why Norwegian kings promoted the worship of St. Olaf, Swedish kings promoted the worship of St. Erik, and Danish kings promoted the worship of St. Canute, just as English kings promoted the worship of St. Edward the Confessor.
Sigrid Undset noted that Olaf was baptized in Rouen, the capital of Normandy, and suggested he may have used priests of Norman descent for his missionaries. Normans had some knowledge of the culture of the people they were trying to convert and may have understood their language. One of the bishops Olaf brought from England was Grimketel (Latin: Grimcillus). He was likely the only missionary bishop still in Norway when Olaf died, and he was responsible for declaring Olaf a saint on August 3, 1031. Later, Grimketel became the first bishop of Sigtuna in Sweden.
At that time, local bishops and their people decided who became a saint, and official approval from the Pope's office was not common. This did not happen for Olaf until 1888. However, Olaf II died before the East-West Schism, and a strict Roman Rite was not widely practiced in Scandinavia at the time. He is also honored in the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Grimketel was later appointed bishop in the diocese of Selsey in southeastern England. This is likely why the earliest records of a religious celebration for Olaf were found in England. A prayer service for Olaf is included in the Leofric collectar (about 1050), a collection of prayers left to Exeter Cathedral by Bishop Leofric of Exeter. This English worship of Olaf seems to have been short-lived.
Around 1070, Adam of Bremen wrote about pilgrimages to St. Olaf's shrine in Nidaros. This is the only clear evidence of a worship of St. Olaf in Norway before the mid-12th century. By this time, Olaf was also called Norway's Eternal King. In 1152/3, Nidaros became its own archbishopric, separate from Lund. It is likely that any earlier worship of Olaf in Nidaros was emphasized and made official at this time.
Miracles attributed to St. Olaf first appear in the skaldic poem Glælognskviða (or "Sea-Calm Poem") by Þórarinn loftunga, written between 1030 and 1034. One miracle describes a sea serpent being killed and thrown onto a mountain, still visible on a cliffside. Another miracle occurred on the day of Olaf's death, when a blind man regained his sight after touching his eyes with hands stained with Olaf's blood.
The texts used for religious celebrations of St. Olaf during most of the Middle Ages were probably written by Eystein Erlendsson, the second Archbishop of Nidaros (1161–1189). The nine miracles described in Glælognskviða form the main part of the miracle stories in these religious services.
St. Olaf was widely loved throughout Scandinavia. Many churches in Norway, Sweden, and Iceland were named after him. His influence was even felt in Finland, and many people from across the Norse world visited his shrine. In addition to early signs of worship in England, there are only a few mentions of him outside the Nordic region.
Several churches in England were named after him (often as St. Olave). This name was likely popular among people from Scandinavia. St. Olave's Church in York is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1055 as the burial place of its founder, Earl Siward. This is generally accepted as the earliest known church dedicated to Olaf