Sir William Henry Perkin FRS (12 March 1838 – 14 July 1907) was an English chemist and businessperson best known for accidentally discovering the first man-made synthetic organic dye, mauveine, made from aniline. Although he did not succeed in creating quinine for treating malaria, he achieved success in the field of dyes after his first discovery at the age of 18.
Perkin built a factory to make the dye on a large scale. Regina Lee Blaszczyk, professor of business history at the University of Leeds, states, "By laying the foundation for the synthetic organic chemicals industry, Perkin helped to revolutionize the world of fashion."
Early years
William Perkin was born in the East End of London, the youngest of seven children. His father, George Perkin, was a successful carpenter. His mother, Sarah, was from Scotland and moved to East London as a child. William was baptized at the Anglican parish church of St. Paul's, Shadwell, which was linked to James Cook, Jane Randolph Jefferson (mother of Thomas Jefferson), and John Wesley.
At age 14, Perkin attended the City of London School. His teacher, Thomas Hall, helped develop his interest in science and encouraged him to study chemistry.
Accidental discovery of mauveine
In 1853, at the age of 15, Perkin entered the Royal College of Chemistry, now part of Imperial College London, where he began his studies under August Wilhelm von Hofmann. At this time, chemistry was not very advanced: although the major elements had been discovered and methods to analyze the proportions of elements in compounds existed, it was still difficult to determine how elements were arranged in compounds. Hofmann had published a theory about how quinine, an expensive natural substance used to treat malaria, might be created. As one of Hofmann's assistants, Perkin started experiments to test this idea.
During the Easter vacation in 1856, Perkin conducted more experiments in a basic laboratory in his apartment on the top floor of his home on Cable Street in east London. There, he accidentally discovered that aniline could be partially changed into a rough mixture. When this mixture was extracted with alcohol, it produced a substance with a strong purple color. Perkin, who was interested in painting and photography, became excited about this result and tested it further with his friend Arthur Church and his brother Thomas. Since these experiments were not part of the quinine work assigned to Perkin, the three of them performed them in a small hut in Perkin's garden to keep them hidden from Hofmann.
They tested whether they could make more of the purple substance and sell it as a dye, which they named mauveine. Their early tests showed that it dyed silk in a way that remained strong when washed or exposed to light. They sent samples to a dye factory in Perth, Scotland, and received a positive response from the company's general manager, Robert Pullar. In August 1856, when Perkin was still 18, he applied for a patent to protect his invention.
At the time, all dyes used for clothing were natural substances, many of which were costly and hard to extract. Many of these dyes also faded easily or did not last long. Purple, a color associated with nobility and importance since ancient times, was especially expensive and hard to make. Its production was inconsistent and complicated, so Perkin and his brother realized they had found a possible replacement that could be made successfully for sale.
Perkin’s discovery came at a good time and place: England was the starting point of the Industrial Revolution, driven by progress in textile production; chemistry had advanced enough to influence industry; and coal tar, the main material used in his process, was a common byproduct of making coal gas and coke.
After inventing the dye, Perkin faced challenges such as raising money to produce it, making it cheaply, adapting it for use on cotton, gaining acceptance from dyers, and creating public interest. He worked on all these issues: he convinced his father to provide funding and his brothers to join him in building a factory; he developed a chemical to help cotton absorb the dye; he offered advice to the dyeing industry; and he promoted his invention.
Public interest grew when Queen Victoria of Britain and Empress Eugénie of France, wife of Napoleon III, wore similar purple colors. The popularity of the crinoline, a type of skirt that required large amounts of fabric, also increased demand. Perkin’s mauve was cheaper than traditional purple dyes and became very popular, even inspiring jokes about the “mauve measles.” With hard work and good timing, Perkin became wealthy. After the discovery of mauveine, many new aniline dyes were created (some by Perkin himself), and factories producing them were built across Europe.
Later years
William Perkin kept doing research in organic chemistry for the rest of his life. He discovered and sold other synthetic dyes, such as Britannia Violet and Perkin's Green. He also found ways to make coumarin, a material used in early perfumes, and cinnamic acid. The method used to make cinnamic acid became known as the Perkin reaction. Local people say that the color of the nearby Grand Union Canal changed weekly based on the work happening at Perkin's Greenford dyeworks.
In 1869, Perkin developed a way to produce alizarin, a bright red dye, from anthracene. Alizarin had been first identified from madder root in 1826 by French chemist Pierre Robiquet, along with purpurin, another red dye that was less useful for industry. However, the German company BASF patented the same process one day before Perkin did.
Over the next decade, the new German Empire quickly became more important than Britain as the center of Europe’s chemical industry. By the 1890s, Germany controlled almost all of the business, and Perkin had to sell his shares and retire. In 1892, he was elected to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, followed by his son on November 15 of the same year.
Death
Perkin died in 1907 from pneumonia and other health problems caused by a burst appendix. He is buried in the grounds of Christchurch, Harrow, Middlesex. His will was officially confirmed on August 28, 1907, with a value of £86,231 4s. 11d. (approximately £8,968,788 in 2025).
Family
In 1859, Perkin married Jemima Harriet, the daughter of John Lissett. They had two sons: William Henry Perkin Jr. and Arthur George Perkin. In 1866, Perkin married Alexandrine Caroline, the daughter of Helman Mollwo. They had one son, Frederick Mollwo Perkin, and four daughters. All three sons became chemists.
Honours, awards and commemorations
William Perkin received many honors during his lifetime. In June 1866, he was chosen as a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1879, he was given the Royal Medal, and in 1889, he received the Davy Medal. He was given a knighthood in 1906, and that same year, he was awarded the first Perkin Medal. This medal was created to remember the 50th anniversary of his discovery of mauveine. Today, the Perkin Medal is considered the highest honor in U.S. industrial chemistry and is given every year by the American section of the Society of Chemical Industry. He served as President of the Society of Chemical Industry from 1884 to 1885.
Perkin was a Liveryman of the Leathersellers' Company for 46 years and was chosen as Master of the Company for the year 1896–97.
Today, blue plaques mark the locations of Perkin’s home on Cable Street, near the junction with King David Lane, and the Perkin factory in Greenford, Middlesex.
A portrait painted by Edward Railton Catterns (1838–1909) is owned by the University of Strathclyde.
On 12 March 2018, the search engine Google displayed a Google Doodle to celebrate Perkin’s 180th birthday.
In 2013, the William Perkin Church of England High School opened in Greenford, Middlesex. The school is run by the Twyford Church of England Academies Trust, which also manages Twyford Church of England High School. The school is named after William Perkin and uses a purple uniform and color scheme to honor his discovery of mauveine.
Since 2007, when Imperial College London received its own Royal Charter, the academic dress of the college includes purple in all garments to celebrate Perkin’s work. In 2015, the college’s president, Professor Alice Gast, said: "The color purple symbolizes the spirit of effort and discovery, and the willingness to take risks that define an Imperial education and training."